با سلام.کریسمس و شب یلدا مبارک.

wish you all  and your family a

happy X-mas and  a prosperous new year 

570 ژن عامل پارکينسون کشف شد

  دانشمندان انگليسي و بلژيکي موفق به شناسايي 570 ژن شده‌اند که در جريان بروز و شکل‌گيري بيماري پارکينسون عملکرد همراه با ناهنجاري از خود نشان مي‌دهد.
به گزارش وب‌اينديا، اين تحقيقات مي‌تواند به پزشکان در پيش‌بيني احتمال بروز پارکينسون و ارائه شيوه‌هاي درماني جديد کمک کند.
دانشمندان در اين مطالعه با استفاده از يکسري چيپ‌هاي آزمايشگاهي به تجزيه و تحليل مغز مبتلايان به پارکينسون پرداختند. اين چيپ‌ها قادر به شناسايي ژن‌هاي فعال در مغز در جريان شکل‌گيري فرايندهاي مختلف هستند.
در اين تحقيقات مشخص شد در کل 25 هزار ژن انساني، روند تنظيم و عملکرد 57 ژن در مغز مبتلايان به پارکينسون شديدا دچار ناهنجاري است. اين نخستين باري است که طي تحقيقي بر روي بيماري پارکينسون تمامي ژن‌هاي انسان مورد مطالعه قرار مي‌گيرد.

اگر علاقه مند به دانستن شیوه تشخیص این ژنها توسط بایوتکنولوژیستها هستید به مقالات ۱و۳ از همین وبلاگ در مورد بایوانفورماتیک و DNA Chipمراجعه فرمایید.در صورت نیاز به اطلاعات بیشتر

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ramin41j@yahoo.com

با سلام.در هفته گدشته به خاطر مشکل گوارشی که یرام پیش اومده بود و اینکه چند صباحی هم در بیمارستان بودم نتونستم وبلاگ رو up_date کنم که از این یایت از همتون معذرت میخوام.

چند تست تشخیصی ویروس ایدز              Diagnosis of HIV infection

          با کلیک بر روی هر لینک توضیحات کلمه مربوطه نشان داده میشود                             

                 Different tests are selected for the diagnosis of HIV infection in a particular person, which requires a high degree of confidence that HIV is present. In the United States, this is achieved by an algorithm using two tests to detect antibodies, which are the body’s response to infection. If antibodies are detected by an initial test based on the ELISA method, then a second test based on the Western blot procedure determines the size of the antigens in the test kit binding to the antibodies. This testing algorithm is claimed to have an accuracy of 99.50%, which means that testing 100,000 people not infected with HIV would be expected to produce 500 false positive results. The predictive value of this testing algorithm depends on the prevalence of HIV infection in the group being tested. If 10% of the group being tested is infected with HIV, less than 2% of the positive results will be false positive. But if less that 1 in 7,500 people in the group being test are infected with HIV, then over 90% of the positive results will be false positive

Antibody tests

Antibody tests are specifically designed for the routine testing of HIV in adults, are inexpensive, and are very accurate. If a person does not have a realistic risk of infection, then these tests are not necessary.

Antibody tests give false negative results during the window period of between three weeks and six months from the time of HIV infection until the immune system produces detectable amounts of antibodies. During this window period an infected person can transmit HIV to others, without their HIV infection being detectable using an antibody test. Antiretroviral therapy during the window period can delay the formation of antibodies and extend the window period beyond 12 months. C B Hare, B L Pappalardo, M P Busch, B Phelps, S S Alexander, C Ramstead, J A Levy, F M Hecht. (2004). "Negative HIV antibody test results among individuals treated with antiretroviral therapy (ART) during acute/early infection". The XV International AIDS Conference, Abstract no. MoPeB3107.

A person exposed to HIV would be expected to produce antibodies that specifically bind to HIV. The development of antibody tests for HIV has been complicated because all human blood has large quantities of antibodies that bind to components of the antibody test kits. For this reason, the blood to be tested is diluted in an attempt to detect antibodies that have been produced after exposure to HIV. Manufacturers of all these test kits state that, "There is no single recognised standard for establishing the presence or absence of antibodies to HIV in human blood."

ELISA

The ELISA test was the first screening test commonly employed. It has a high sensitivity. The low specificity of the test is because antibodies attach to antigens in the test kits "by accident", even though the person has never been exposed to HIV. About 80% of positive ELISA tests are followed by a negative Western-Blot test, and therefore regarded as false positive.

The test proceeds by the general ELISA method: the person's serum is diluted 400 fold and applied to a plate to which HIV antigens have been attached. Some of the antibodies in the serum may bind to these HIV antigens. The plate is then washed to remove all other components of the serum. Then a specially prepared "secondary antibody"—an antibody that binds to human antibodies—is applied to the plate, followed by washes. This secondary antibody is chemically linked in advance to an enzyme. Thus the plate will contain enzyme in proportion to the amount of secondary antibody bound to the plate. A substrate for the enzyme is applied, and catalysis by the enzyme leads to a change in color or fluorescence. As the ELISA results are reported as a number, the most controversial aspect of this test is deciding the "cut off" point between positive and negative.

Western blot

The Western blot test uses the general Western blot procedure. HIV-infected cells are opened and the contained proteins are entered into a slab of gel to which a voltage is applied. Different proteins will move with different velocities in this field, depending on their size, while their electrical charge is levelled by a substance, called sodium lauryl sulfate. Once the proteins are well separated, they are transferred to a membrane and the procedure continues similar to ELISA: the person's diluted serum is applied to the membrane and antibodies in the serum may attach to some of the HIV proteins. Antibodies which do not attach are washed away, and enzyme-linked antibodies with the capability to attach to the person's antibodies first detect to which HIV proteins the person has antibodies.

There no universal criteria for interpreting the Western blot test: the number of viral bands which must be present vary from definition to definition. If no viral bands are detected, the result is negative. If at least one viral band for each of the GAG, POL, and ENV gene-product groups are present, the result is positive. Such a criterion, however, is not sensitive enough for clinical use, as the absence of antibodies to p24 or to p31 is relatively common even in patients who are clearly infected with HIV. Thus the three-gene-product approach to Western blot interpretation has not been adopted for public health or clinical practice. The Association of State and Territorial Public Health Laboratory Directors (ASTPHLD) and CDC standard ignores p31 results, and interprets the presence of gp41 and gp120/160 bands as a positive result. Tests in which less than the required number of viral bands are detected are reported as indeterminate: a person who has an indeterminate result should be retested, as later tests may be more conclusive. Almost all HIV-infected persons with indeterminate Western-Blot results will develop a positive result when tested in one month; persistently indeterminate results over a period of six months suggests the results are not due to HIV infection.

The Western blot test is usually performed after a positive ELISA test, because many samples that are ELISA negative have antibodies to one or more of the proteins in the Western blot test, and would give inaccurate results, especially when interpreted according to criteria which require a complete absence of all viral and non-viral bands to report a Western-Blot result as negative rather than indeterminate.

Rapid or point-of-care tests

Rapid Antibody Tests are qualitative immunoassays intended for use as a point-of-care test to aid in the diagnosis of HIV infection. These tests should be used in conjunction with the clinical status, history, and risk factors of the person being tested. The specificity of Rapid Antibody Tests for in low-risk populations has not been evaluated. These tests should be used in appropriate multi-test algorithms designed for statistical validation of rapid HIV test results.

If no antibodies to HIV are detected, this does not mean the person has not been infected with HIV. It may take several months after HIV infection for the antibody response to reach detectable levels, during which time rapid testing for antibodies to HIV will not be indicative of true infection status. A comprehensive risk history and clinical judgement should be considered before concluding that an individual is not infected with HIV.

OraQuick is an antibody test that provides results in 20 minutes. The blood, plasma or oral fluid is mixed in a vial with developing solution, and the results are read from a sticklike testing device.

Orasure is an HIV test which uses mucosal transudate from the tissues of cheeks and gums. It is an antibody test which first employs ELISA, then Western Blot.

There is also a urine test; it employs both the ELISA and the Western Blot method.

Home Access Express HIV-1 Test is a FDA-approved home test: the patient collects a drop of blood and mails the sample to a laboratory; the results are obtained over the phone.

There have been a number of cases of fraudulent tests being sold via mail order or the Internet to the general public. In 1997, a California man was indicted on mail fraud and wire charges for selling supposed home test kits. In 2004, the US Federal Trade Commission asked Federal Express and US Customs to confiscate shipments of the Discreet home HIV test kits, produced by Gregory Stephen Wong of Vancouver, BC. In February 2005, the US FDA issued a warning against using the rapid HIV test kits and other home use kits marketed by Globus Media of Montreal Canada.

Interpreting antibody tests

ELISA testing alone cannot be used to diagnose AIDS, even if the recommended investigation of reactive specimens suggests a high probability that the antibody to HIV 1 is present. In the United States, such positive tests are not reported out unless confirmed by a Western Blot test.

The ELISA antibody tests were developed to provide a high level of confidence that donated blood was NOT infected with HIV. It is therefore not possible to conclude that blood rejected for transfusion because of a positive ELISA antibody test is in fact infected with HIV. Usually, retesting the donor in several months will produce a negative ELISA antibody test.

All laboratory tests can produce 'false alarms'. This is a positive result in the screening test, which, on confirmatory testing is shown to be negative. False reactions are a recognised complication of all biological tests and are perfectly normal. They are of no significance for the health of the donor.

It is known that false positive results due to factors unrelated to exposure to the HIV virus are common with the ELISA test. False positives can be caused by antibodies to viruses other than HIV, antibodies produced by pregnancy, and other medical conditions. A false positive results DOES NOT indicate that you are infected with the AIDS virus, nor does it indicate a condition of significant risk to your health.

The evidence for regarding the risks and benefits of HIV screening was reviewed in July 2005. ("Screening for HIV: A Review of the Evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force", Annals of Internal Medicine, Chou et. al, Volume 143 Issue 1, pp. 55-73. [1]): "The use of repeatedly reactive enzyme immunoassay followed by confirmatory Western blot or immunofluorescent assay remains the standard method for diagnosing HIV-1 infection. A large study of HIV testing in 752 U.S. laboratories reported a sensitivity of 99.7% and specificity of 98.5% for enzyme immunoassay, and studies in U.S. blood donors reported specificities of 99.8% and greater than 99.99%. With confirmatory Western blot, the chance of a false-positive identification in a low-prevalence setting is about 1 in 250 000 (95% CI, 1 in 173 000 to 1 in 379 000)."

Antigen tests

The p24 antigen test detects the presence of the p24 protein of HIV (also known as CA), a major core protein of the virus. Monoclonal antibodies specific to the p24 protein are mixed with the person's blood. Any p24 protein in the person's blood will stick to the monoclonal antibody and enzyme-linked antibody to the monoclonal antibodies to p24 causes a color change if p24 was present in the sample.

This test is now used routinely to screen blood donations, thus reducing the window to about 16 days. It is not useful for general diagnostics, as it has very low sensitivity and only works during a certain time period after infection before the body produces antibodies to the p24 protein.

Nucleic acid based tests

Nucleic acid based tests amplify and detect a 142 base target sequence located in a highly conserved region of the HIV gag gene. Since 2001, donated blood in the United States, has been screened with nucleic acid based tests, shortening the window to about 12 days. Since these tests are relatively expensive, the blood is screened by first pooling some 10-20 samples, testing these together, and if the pool tests positive, each sample is retested individually. A different version of this test is intended for use in conjunction with clinical presentation and other laboratory markers of disease progress for the clinical management of HIV-1 infected patients.

In the RT-PCR test, the viral RNA is extracted from the patient's plasma and is treated with reverse transcriptase so that the RNA of the virus is transcribed into DNA. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is applied, using two primers thought to be unique to the virus's genome. After the PCR amplification process is completed, which takes some time, the resulting amplified segments bind to specific oligonucleotides bound to the vessel wall and are then made visible with a probe that's bound to an enzyme. The amount of virus in the sample can be quantified with sufficient accuracy to detect three fold changes.

In the Quantiplex bDNA or branched DNA test plasma is centrifugated to concentrate the viruses, which are then opened to release the RNA. Special oligonucleotides are added which bind to viral RNA and to certain oligonucleotides bound to the wall of the vessel. In this way, viral RNA is fastened to the wall. Then new oligonucleotides are added which bind at several locations to this RNA; and other oligonucelotides which bind at several locations to those oligonucleotides. This is done to amplify the signal. Finally, oligonucleotides that bind to the last set of oligonucleotides and that are bound to an enzyme are added; the enzyme action causes a color reaction which allows to quantify the viral RNA in the original sample. Monitoring the effects of antiretroviral therapy by serial measurements of plasms HIV-1 RNA with this test has been validated for patients with viral loads greater than 25,000 copies per millilitre.

Other tests used in HIV/AIDS treatment

The CD4 T-cell count is not an HIV test, but rather a procedure where the number of CD4 T-cells in one microlitre of blood are counted in a standard medical lab test after a blood draw.

This test does not check for the presence of HIV. It is used monitor the immune system function in HIV+ people. Declining CD4 T-cell counts are considered to be a marker of the progression of HIV infection. In HIV+ people, AIDS is officially diagnosed when the count drops below 200 cells or when certain opportunistic infections occur. This use of a CD4 count as an AIDS criterion occurred in 1992; the value of 200 was chosen because it corresponded with an increased likelihood of opportunistic infections. Lower levels of CD4 counts in people with AIDS are indicators that prophylaxis against certain types of opportunistic infections should be instituted.

Low CD4 T-cell counts are associated with a variety of conditions, including many viral infections, bacterial infections, parasitic infections, sepsis, tuberculosis, coccidioidomycosis, burns, trauma, intravenous injections of foreign proteins, malnutrition, over-exercising, pregnancy, normal daily variation, psychological stress, and social isolation.

This test is also used occasionally to estimate immune system function for people whose CD4 T cells are impaired for reasons other than HIV infection, which include several blood diseases, several genetic disorders, and the side effects of many chemotherapy drugs.

Generally speaking, the lower the number of T cells, the lower the immune system's function will be. Normal T4 counts are between 500 and 1500 CD4+ T cells per microliter and the counts may fluctuate in healthy people, depending on recent infection status, nutrition, exercise and other factors -- even the time of day. Women tend to have somewhat lower counts than men.

Symptoms of T4 cell immune collapse are almost never seen until the number drops below 200. Similar symptoms of immune collapse are generally seen in people with very low T4 cell counts, whether this immunosuppression is caused by HIV, cancer, or some other disease. However, the long-term treatment differs substantially, because it needs to address the cause of the immunosuppression

In addition,I've seen a news about a new innovated "rapid detection kit" which i'll prepared it for next weeks.

  اول دسامبر روز جهانی حمایت از بیماران ایدزی را گرامی میداریم

نسخه ۵

آيا مي‌توان از ايدز رهايي يافت؟

 
اخيرا خبري بر روي سايت‌هاي اينترنتي دنيا درج شد با اين مضمون که يک مرد انگليسي مبتلا به (HIV) به طور کامل عاري از ويروس شده است. سايت اينترنتي بي‌بي‌سي در مورد ماهيت ويروس (HIV) و اينکه آيا امکان رهايي از بيماري مخوف و مرگبار ناشي از آن وجود دارد يا خير، مقاله‌اي در قالب پرسش و پاسخ در گفتگو با متخصصان برجسته دنيا منتشر کرده است که ترجمه آن در ذيل مي‌آيد:
(HIV) چيست؟
واژه (HIV) مختصر شده عبارت «Human Immunode Ficieney Virus» مي‌باشد. اين ويروس به تدريج سيستم ايمني بدن را آلوده و نابود مي‌کند و در نتيجه کارآيي مکانيسم حفاظتي بدن را در برابر عفونت‌ها و سرطان‌ها کاهش مي‌دهد. تحت تاثير تهاجم ويروس (HIV) شمار سلول‌هاي (T) افت پيدا کرده و در نتيجه سيستم ايمني به نحو جدي ضعيف مي‌باشد.
ايدز يا «سندروم نقص ايمني اکتسابي» واژه‌اي است بيانگر وقوع شرايطي که تحت آن ديگر سيستم ايمني بدن فرد به دليل سطح آ‌سيب‌هاي وارده توسط ويروس (HIV)، قادر به مقابله و يا کنار آمدن با بيماري نيست. در اين حالت فرد در برابر ابتلا به ديگر امراض نيز آسيب‌پذير مي‌شود.
آيا تست منفي (HIV) به معناي عدم وجود بيماري است؟
خير، براي کنترل سلامت افراد از نظر ابتلا به ويروس (HIV) تست‌هاي متعددي وجود دارد به عنوان مثال يکي از اين تست‌ها تحت عنوان تست آنتي‌بادي کنترل مي‌کند که آيا پاسخ ايمني عليه ويروس در بدن شکل گرفته است يا خير. مثبت بودن اين تست معمولا بدان معناست که فرد آلوده به (HIV) شده است. البته احتمال خطا و ارائه پاسخ مثبت اشتباهي نيز در اين تست وجود دارد. رديابي موجوديت ذرات (HIV) درون خون نيز يکي ديگر از آزمايشات براي کنترل ابتلاي افراد به ايدز مي‌باشد.
به گفته دکتر «دنيان پيلاي»، متخصص ويروس‌شناس دانشگاه لندن، افراد با يکديگر تفاوت دارند و هر يک به نحوي متفاوت در برابر (HIV) از خود واکنش نشان مي‌دهند.

آيا بدن مي‌تواند خود را از شر ويروس (HIV) برهاند؟
بدن مکانيسم‌هاي دفاعي بسياري عليه ويروس‌ها در اختيار دارد اما در مورد (HIV) هنوز ثابت نشده که بدن بتواند خود را بطور کامل از ويروس پاک کند. در برخي بيماران (HIV) هرگز به ايدز کامل تبديل نمي‌شود که البته يکي از اميدهاي دانشمندان نيز بهره‌گيري از راز اين مهم در دستيابي به تکنيکي براي مقابله با اين ويروس است. معدود گزارشات حکايت گونه‌اي نيز در مورد افرادي که نوعي ايمني در برابر (HIV) از خود نشان داده‌اند، منتشر شده با اين وجود به لحاظ علمي هنوز چيزي در اين خصوص اثبات نشده است.
به گفته «دبورا جک» مدير مرکز بين‌المللي مقابله با ايدز، ويروس (HIV) ساختاري بي‌نهايت پيچيده دارد و چگونگي عملکرد آن و نحوه واکنش بدن انسان‌ها در قبال آن همچنان در زمره ناشناخته‌هاي دانشمندان است.
در قالب شگفتي‌هاي مشاهده شده حتي اين احتمال وجود دارد که فرد در معرض (HIV) قرار گيرد اما آلوده به ويروس نشود.

در مورد (HIV) چه مي‌دانيم و علت دشوار بودن درمان آن چيست؟
ويروس‌ها به خودي خود قادر به توليد مثل و تکثير نيستند و نيازمند يافتن و آلوده کردن يک سلول هستند تا در قالب ميزبان برايشان ايفاي نقش کند و به محلي براي شکل‌گيري ويروس‌هاي جديد مبدل شود. پژوهشگران مي‌دانند زماني که (HIV) وارد يک سلول انساني مي‌شود، از نوعي آنزيم موسوم به «Reverse Transcriptase» براي شروع پروسه تکثير بهره مي‌برد.
اين آنزيم در واقع براي توليد يک کپي (DNA) از ماده ژنتيکي ويروس تحت عنوان (RNA) مورد استفاده قرار مي‌گيرد. ماده (RNA) در قالب طرحي براي توليد مولفه‌هاي ويروس‌هاي جديد ايفاي نقش مي‌کند.
دانشمندان در حال بررسي شيوه‌هاي مختل کردن اين پروسه تکثير مي‌باشند و به شواهدي نيز دست پيدا کرده‌اند مبني بر آنکه بدن برخي افراد در مقابله با اين ويروس کارآمدتر از سايرين است. به گفته دکتر «جورج کينگهورن»، متخصص (HIV) از بيمارستان هالام شاير، برخي افراد آلوده به (HIV) قادرند بدون هيچ گونه درمان آنتي وايرالي ويروس را تحت کنترل نگاه دارند.
دانشمندان هنوز علت اين مهم را درنيافته‌اند اما احتمال مي‌دهند عفونت‌هاي شکل گرفته در بدن اين افراد عمدتا از مجموعه گونه‌هاي طبيعي‌تر باشد که در مقايسه با ديگر اشکال (HIV) کم‌خطرترند. توضيح ديگر آنان نيز چنين است که افراد مزبور ممکن است به لحاظ ژنتيکي به گونه‌اي برنامه‌ريزي شده باشند که به خوبي از عهده مقابله با ويروس برآمده و پاسخ‌هاي ايمني موثري نيز نسبت به سايرين از خود نشان دهند. البته در تمامي اين موارد ويروس همچنان در بدن حضور دارد و در واقع حتي با وجود مصرف داروهاي قوي ‌آنتي (HIV)، ويروس مي‌تواند به حالت نهفته و غيرفعال در بدن باقي مانده و خود را از حملات داروها مصون نگاه دارد.
اما به گفته متخصصان، اينکه فردي به ويروس آلوده و سپس به طور ناگهاني به طور کامل از آن پاک شود به گونه‌اي که به يک فرد «آنتي بادي نگتيو» مبدل گردد، حقيقتا نادر و غيرعادي است.

مورد مربوط به «اندرو سيمپسون»، مرد انگليسي که ظاهرا بدنش از عهده بيرون راندن ويروس (HIV) برآمده، به چه نحو مي‌تواند دانش موجود محققان در مورد ايدز را متحول کند؟
«سيمپسون» 25 ساله در سال 2002 پس از انجام تست‌هاي (HIV)، آلوده به بيماري شناخته شد اما انجام مجدد تست‌ها در اکتبر سال 2003 در کمال شگفتي دانشمندان هيچ اثري از ويروس در بدن پيدا نکرد. مشخص نيست که ‌آيا بدن وي موفق به پاکسازي خود از ويروس شده يا توضيح ديگري بايد براي اين مهم پيدا کرد.
در هر حال اکنون محققان انجام آزمايشات متعددي را بروي «سيمپسون» آغاز کرده‌اند با اين هدف که به تکنيک‌هايي براي درمان (HIV) دست پيدا کنند.
بدن مکانيسم‌هاي دفاعي بسياري عليه ويروس‌ها در اختيار دارد اما در مورد (HIV) هنوز ثابت نشده که بدن بتواند خود را به طور کامل از ويروس پاک کند.
ويروس (HIV) ساختاري بي‌نهايت پيچيده دارد و چگونگي عملکرد آن و نحوه واکنش بدن انسان‌ها در قبال آن همچنان در زمره ناشناخته‌هاي دانشمندان است.

 
جدیدترین مطالب در موردHIV بزودی به فارسی و English نمایش داده میشود.

whats new with HIV" will be shortly monitored in English and Persian"